Student: Sir, there are rathas at Mahabalipuram named after Dharmaraja, Bhima, and Arjuna. Were they actually built by the Pandavas?

Teacher: No! These are monolithic monuments of the Pallava period. The names associated with characters from the Mahabharata arose from later traditions. And these are not movable chariots either.

Student: Then which king had such stone rathas built?

Teacher: We will find the answer in the coastal town of Mamallapuram and the Pallava dynasty that ruled there. But first, identify two capitals in our story—Kanchipuram and Vatapi.

Student: Two capitals of the same dynasty?

Teacher: No. Kanchipuram was the capital of the Pallavas; Vatapi, or Badami, was the capital of the Chalukyas. This rivalry will later connect the stories of both warfare and architecture.

Student: So was Simhavishnu the first Pallava king?

Teacher: No. It is convenient to begin the powerful phase of Pallava history with Simhavishnu, but copper-plate grants and inscriptions provide evidence of earlier Pallavas.

Student: Copper plates? You mean orders engraved on copper rather than written on paper?

Teacher: Exactly. Land grants and royal proclamations were inscribed on copper plates. Important sources for the early Pallavas include the copper-plate grants associated with Shivaskandavarman, namely the Mayidavolu and Hirahadagalli; these inscriptions use Prakrit.

Student: Do we know any names from even before him?

Teacher: The early epigraphic material does not conclusively name his father; scholars debate the genealogical position of early rulers such as Simhavarman. So do not turn these early kings into an unsupported, straightforward father–son succession. Shivaskandavarman's inscriptions also refer to claims of Vedic sacrifices, including the Ashvamedha.

Student: But doesn't the name “Vishnugopa” also appear in Gupta history?

Teacher: Excellent observation! Samudragupta's Prayaga Prashasti, composed by Harishena, names “Vishnugopa of Kanchi” among the southern rulers. This is an important link connecting the early Pallavas with the Guptas.

Student: So, when a question mentions both Samudragupta and Kanchi, we should remember Vishnugopa?

Teacher: Yes. The Uttar Pradesh PCS examination has also asked about precisely this association.

Remembering the Early Pallavas

Shivaskandavarman — Prakrit Copper PlatesVishnugopa — Kanchi and Samudragupta

Student: How did the Pallavas suddenly become so prominent after Samudragupta?

Teacher: A long period and many rulers came in between. In the sixth century, during the reign of Simhavishnu, Pallava power underwent a major revival. He challenged Kalabhra dominance and extended his influence southwards.

Student: Who were the Kalabhras?

Teacher: Their name is associated with a complex political phase in Tamil history. Simhavishnu matters because the Pallavas emerged as a major power under him. We should also remember the role of the Pandya ruler Kadungon in ending Kalabhra dominance in the Tamil region—this achievement cannot be attributed to a single ruler.

Student: Was there anything notable about his royal court?

Teacher: Yes. According to tradition, the renowned Sanskrit poet Bharavi is associated with Simhavishnu's period. His work is the Kiratarjuniya. As we shall see, Pallava kings were associated not only with warfare but also with art and literature.

Student: Who succeeded Simhavishnu?

Teacher: His son, Mahendravarman I (approximately 600–630 CE), came next. He is as important for art and literature as he is for warfare.

Student: Could a king also be a writer himself?

Teacher: Certainly! He wrote the Sanskrit satirical farce Mattavilasa Prahasana, which mocks the pretensions of certain religious sects of his time.

Student: Sir, is Mattavilasa the name of a book or a title of the king?

Teacher: This is precisely the sort of distinction that can confuse students in examinations—Mattavilasa was one of Mahendravarman I's royal titles, while Mattavilasa Prahasana was also his literary work. His other major titles were Vichitrachitta and Gunabhara.

Student: So was this ruler also associated with the Shaiva saint Appar?

Teacher: Yes. According to the Shaiva bhakti tradition, he was first influenced by Jainism and then came to follow Shaivism under the influence of Appar/Tirunavukkarasar. Remember this as a traditional account.

Student: He loved art so much; then whom did he fight?

Teacher: He faced the powerful Chalukya ruler of Badami, Pulakeshin II. The Pallavas and Chalukyas came into conflict, and a battle associated with Pullalur is also mentioned. The Chalukyas put pressure on the Pallavas, but Kanchi remained a Pallava centre.

Student: Were Mahendravarman's artisans still constructing temples amid all these battles?

Teacher: This is where the first major chapter in architecture begins: Carving a temple inside a rock instead of assembling one from separate stones. The rock-cut cave halls of the Mahendra style are famous for this experiment.

Student: Carving rooms into hills—where do we find evidence of this?

Teacher: The Mandagapattu inscription proudly describes a temple built without brick, timber, metal, or mortar. Mandagapattu, Mahendravadi and Mamandur are examples associated with the Mahendra-period cave-temple tradition.

Student: Mahendravarman faced Pulakeshin's challenge. What happened next?

Teacher: His son, Narasimhavarman I (approximately 630–668 CE) ascended the throne. His famous title was Mamalla—“great wrestler” or “great warrior.”

Student: Did he continue his father's conflict?

Teacher: Yes. Manimangalam and other victories helped the Pallava army advance northwards; around 642 CE, it captured the Chalukya capital of Vatapi. Paranjyoti is regarded as a major commander associated with this campaign.

Student: Then who was called “Vatapikonda”?

Teacher: Narasimhavarman I. Vatapikonda means “conqueror of Vatapi.” Mamalla and Vatapikonda both refer to the same ruler.

Student: Did Mamalla's campaigns end after he fought so far from home?

Teacher: The story now crosses the sea. To support the exiled Sri Lankan prince Manavamma, Narasimhavarman I dispatched naval expeditions. These also demonstrate the Pallavas' maritime connections.

Student: Didn't a foreign traveller also write about Kanchi around this time?

Teacher: Yes. The Chinese Buddhist traveller Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) described Kanchi in the seventh century. He depicts it as an important religious and educational centre. Later, when we discuss the “Ghatika,” we will better understand Kanchi's learning environment.

MamallaVatapikondaParanjyotiManavamma—Sri LankaMamallapuram

MamallaMamallaVatapikondaParanjyotiManavamma—Sri LankaMamallapuram

Student: Mamalla achieved such an important political victory—why is Mamallapuram famous in his name?

Teacher: Because a unique centre of the artistic tradition associated with his name is Mamallapuram/Mahabalipuram. Here, sculptors carved natural rock formations into different temple forms.

Student: Mahendravarman also carved stone. How did the art of these two rulers differ?

Teacher: The main experiment of the Mahendra style was the cave hall carved into rock. In the Mamalla style, caves developed further, along with monolithic rathas, lion-based pillars and massive large rock reliefs. The two phases also share techniques, and their periods overlap to some extent.

Student: Do all five rathas look alike?

Teacher: No! Imagine five craftsmen being asked to demonstrate five distinct roof shapes and temple plans. Identify each by its shape, and the names will be much easier to remember.

Student: Three facts are now clear—Dharmaraja is tall, Bhima is long, and Draupadi is the smallest! But which is the largest?

Teacher: Many general descriptions call Dharmaraja the largest, while some study materials regard Bhima as larger on the basis of length or extent. So, for examinations, it is safer to remember the more precise distinctions: Dharmaraja—the tallest, Bhima—the longest, Draupadi—the smallest.

Student: Were only rathas built there?

Teacher: No. That is what makes Mamallapuram special. It has cave halls (Varaha and Mahishasuramardini), monolithic rathas, large rock reliefs (Arjuna's Penance), and, later, the structural Shore Temple—all these architectural forms can be seen there.

Student: Is Arjuna's Penance a sculpture or an entire temple?

Teacher: It is not a temple, but a massive open-air rock relief carved onto large rock faces. It is interpreted under two names: “Arjuna's Penance” and “Descent of the Ganges”; scholars differ on its precise subject.

Student: Sir, why was Mamallapuram also called the “Seven Pagodas”? Is that another name for the Five Rathas?

Teacher: No. Sapta Pagodas or the Seven Pagodas is a separate, famous expression associated with seafarers and European accounts. The word “pagoda” was used for a temple or a tall temple tower.

Student: Were there really seven temples in the sea?

Teacher: Tradition says that seven major temples stood along the coast and that most were swallowed by the sea; however, the claim that there were exactly seven temples and exactly six were submergedshould not be presented as established history. Archaeological remains have been found in coastal and underwater areas, suggesting older structures.

Student: So which temple still stands by the seashore today?

Teacher: The Shore Temple. But unlike the Five Rathas, it is not monolithic—it is a structural temple. The Pallava ruler associated with it brings us to the next major turning point.

Student: Did the two dynasties make peace after the conquest of Vatapi?

Teacher: No. Narasimhavarman I was succeeded by his son, Mahendravarman II, whose reign was very short. Then came Paramesvaravarman I.

Student: Who had replaced Pulakeshin II among the Chalukyas?

Teacher: His son, Vikramaditya I, became a major ruler at Badami. The struggle between the two powers continued. Peruvalanallur is associated with a battle involving Paramesvaravarman I; Pallava and Chalukya inscriptions sometimes emphasise their own successes differently.

Student: So we shouldn't study history as though “one victory ended everything”?

Teacher: Exactly. Meanwhile, temple architecture was gradually shifting from rock-cut monuments towards structural temples. The next ruler will illustrate that change very clearly.

Student: So far, artisans had been cutting into rock. How did they then build a freestanding temple like the Shore Temple?

Teacher: By assembling separately carved blocks of stone. This method is called structural architecture. The major ruler associated with its magnificent development under the Pallavas was Narasimhavarman II, whose famous title was Rajasimha.

Student: But wasn't Narasimhavarman also the name of the king who conquered Vatapi?

Teacher: That is a classic examination trap: Narasimhavarman I = Mamalla = Vatapikonda, whereas Narasimhavarman II = Rajasimha = Shore Temple and Kailasanatha Temple.

Student: Which are the two most important temples of Rajasimha?

Teacher: The Shore Temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram. Both are outstanding examples of structural Dravidian temple architecture. The main construction of Kailasanatha is associated with Rajasimha, while some additions are attributed to his son.

Student: How can I identify a structural temple in a picture?

Teacher: Look for the rising vimana (the tower over the sanctum), a structure assembled from dressed stones, lion/yali pillars, and, in several temples, representations of Somaskanda (Shiva, Parvati, and the child Skanda).

Student: Was any famous writer associated with the period, alongside these conflicts?

Teacher: The Sanskrit prose writer Dandin is associated with the wider Pallava cultural milieu. His principal works include Dashakumaracharita and Avantisundarikatha. Scholars disagree about his precise court connections, so it is not appropriate to describe him as an unequivocally established court poet of Rajasimha alone.

Student: Did the throne pass normally within Rajasimha's family after his reign?

Teacher: He was followed by Paramesvaravarman II. After his death, a succession crisis arose. A boy from another branch of the Pallava family was chosen as king.

Student: A boy king? Who was he?

Teacher: Nandivarman II, whose title was Pallavamalla. Traditional accounts say he was selected at around twelve years of age. He had to contend with rebellions and neighbouring powers; Udayachandra was an important commander of his.

Student: How do we know about such an old succession dispute?

Teacher: The Vaikuntha Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram has historical sculpted panels that help us understand Pallava genealogy and succession. In other words, a temple is not merely a place of worship—it is alsovisual evidence of history.

Student: Is this also called the fourth architectural style? Was there a fourth construction technique?

Teacher: No. The Nandivarman or Later Pallava style is an art-historical phase in the further development of structural temples, not a separate “fourth building technique.” Kanchi's Vaikuntha Perumal Temple is a key example; Muktesvara and Matangesvara temples also exemplify the Later Pallava tradition.

Student: You said Kanchi was an important centre of learning. Where did students study? Were there colleges like those we have today?

Teacher: Not exactly like modern colleges, but institutions of higher learning called Ghatikas were well known. They were generally associated with temples, where the Vedas, grammar, scriptures, and religious subjects were studied. Kanchi's Ghatika was particularly famous.

Student: So a “Ghatika” was not another name for a temple, but an educational institution?

Teacher: Exactly! Remember this distinction: Ghatika = generally a centre for advanced learning associated with a temple. UPSC has tested this directly.

Student: If religion and learning flourished together at Kanchi, was the Bhakti movement also expanding at the time?

Teacher: Yes. In South India, the traditions of the Nayanars, devotees of Shiva, and the Alvars, devotees of Vishnu, flourished. Tradition recognises 63 Nayanars and 12 Alvars. The saint Appar, associated with Mahendravarman, was part of this Shaiva bhakti milieu.

Student: Are the names of their hymns important for examinations too?

Teacher: Yes. Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar composed Shaiva hymns associated with the Tevaram tradition. The Tamil Vaishnava devotional hymns of the Alvars were later compiled in the Nalayira Divya Prabandham.

Student: We have also learned about Bharavi, Mahendravarman, and Dandin in literature—can we remember them together?

Teacher: Certainly. Simhavishnu—Bharavi—Kiratarjuniya; Mahendravarman—Mattavilasa Prahasana; Pallava Cultural Milieu—Dandin—Dashakumaracharita. This makes a strong memory chain.

Student: Which languages were used in inscriptions?

Teacher: Initially, Prakritwas used, followed by extensive use of Sanskrit as well as significant use of Tamil. The Pallava-period tradition of the Grantha script, developed in South India for writing Sanskrit, influenced certain script traditions of Southeast Asia.

Student: Did the Pallavas develop village assemblies like those of the Cholas?

Teacher: There is evidence of local institutions and land-grant systems under the Pallavas. Administrative units included terms such as Kottam, Nadu, and village. At the village level, institutions such as the Sabha (particularly in Brahmin settlements) and the Ur, as well as Brahmadeya land grants and irrigation arrangements, were important. It would be incorrect to treat them as identical to the more fully developed forms of Chola administration.

Student: Did the Pallavas continue to rule for long after Nandivarman II?

Teacher: Yes. Among the important later rulers were Dantivarman → Nandivarman III → Nripatunga Varman → Aparajitavarman. Conflicts with the Pandyas, Rashtrakutas, and the rising Chola power weakened the Pallavas.

Student: Who brought Pallava political power to an end?

Teacher: Towards the end of the ninth century, the Chola king Aditya I defeated Aparajitavarman, and Chola influence was established over Tondaimandalam.

Student: Does that mean Pallava temple building came to an end too?

Teacher: No. Later Chola rulers developed Dravidian architecture—built upon Pallava caves, monolithic ratha experiments, and structural temples—into a larger and more mature form. Political power changed hands, but artistic traditions continued.

Student: Then why are the monuments of Mamallapuram still so famous?

Teacher: Because several forms of Pallava artistic achievement survive in one location—caves, monolithic rathas, great rock reliefs, and the Shore Temple. The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1984.